Although Deerfield never had a large population of enslaved African Americans in the 18th century, a number of residents did enslave men, women and children, starting at least as early as the 1680’s. Townspeople interacted with African Americans on a regular basis on the street, at the meetinghouse, and in the stores and shops of local merchants and craftsmen. Approximately fifty-five “servants for life” lived in Deerfield from the 17th through the late 18th centuries. The most prominent families enslaved people. This included Reverend John Williams (1664-1729) with five, Reverend Jonathan Ashley (1712-1780) with three, and yeoman farmer Ebenezer Wells (1691-1758) with two.
In New England, plantations like those in the southern colonies were rare, although there were some in certain parts of Rhode Island and one in Massachusetts. Enslaved men in cities worked either in specialized trades or were involved in the shipping industry. Inland, where small farms dominated, it was common for white farmers and enslaved African Americans to work side by side – with men employed primarily outside and women involved in domestic activities indoors. Women like Jenny (or Jin), who was enslaved by the Reverend Ashley, took care of the children, cooked the family’s meals over the kitchen fire, washed and mended clothes, cleaned the house, and worked in the kitchen garden. Lucy, who was enslaved as a child by Ebenezer Wells, worked in his house and also at one of Deerfield’s taverns.
Enslaved men, like the majority of the white men in Deerfield, were involved primarily in agricultural work. Cato and Titus were enslaved by the Reverend Jonathan Ashley. In February 1752, Ebenezer Barnard paid Ashley for “thrashing” by Titus and “working” by Titus and Cato. In 1756, another entry states: “4 days work of Titus.” In addition there are mention of a “days work of Titus dunging in holes for planting,” “a days work of Cato reaping oats,” plus husking, mowing, picking corn, howing [sic], pulling flax, cutting stalks, and other tasks.
Although most African Americans lived with their enslavers, this did not mean that they were treated equally. They usually did not dine at the same table. Sleeping space might be a corner of the kitchen or in the attic. The enslaved often attended religious services with their enslavers but sat separately, upstairs in the gallery, rather than in family pews. Throughout the town, work, commerce, and daily life presented many opportunities for the enslaved to interact, communicate, and form relationships with one another. However, the personal, more private side of their experience is difficult or even impossible to reconstruct.
Reverend Ashley loaned his enslaved people to others outside of town as well. In October 1759, Cato was sent to work for Caleb Sharp (also known as “Sharp Caleb”) of Conway, Massachusetts [George Sheldon, author of The History of Deerfield, reveals that Mr. Sharp was part Indigenous and part Black, and was a skilled hunter as well as a carpenter and millwright]. A reference in June 1757 shows Cato working in Northampton, Massachusetts, for Samuel Dickinson.
Abijah Prince, a free Black man and farmer in Deerfield, had an account with Reverend Ashley from 1756 to 1768. Ashley loaned Cato and Titus to Prince to dress flax, cut wood, and help with sugaring (February 1757). The two men also plowed and planted in the spring, and mowed, thrashed, drained, and took up stalks in the fall.
Prince paid his debts in cash and by work. The work included “2 hours work mending fence,” and wool spun by his wife.
A survey of account books in Deerfield indicates that enslaved people held accounts with local storekeepers. Often, work, rather than cash or goods, was used to pay the debts. Cesar, who was enslaved by Timothy Childs, bought a pair of shoe buckles and a cap worth two shillings, fifteen pence, from Elijah Williams’ store. Thomas Dickinson’s enslaved man, Ishmael, purchased stockings, rum, a pair of gloves, a pair of garters and a handkerchief. He paid his debt of fifteen shillings by “3 days work” and by digging a grave.
Titus and Cato also appear in Elijah Williams’ account book. In 1755 and 1756, Cato bought knee buckles, shoe buckles, pipes, knives, buttons, and rum, in addition to “a small pamphlet” worth two pence and two farthings. The purchase of reading matter suggests that Cato was literate, most likely having been taught to read by the Reverend Ashley, who tutored both Black and white men. However, literacy for anyone in the 18th century did not always include the ability to write.
Titus settled his purchase of needles, three yards of gartering, and rum by a combination of payments; making a broom, bottoming chairs, a quantity of tobacco, and cash.
In 1765, Abijah Prince bought a bed (mattress) and blankets, pork, beef, sugar, and rum from storekeeper Salah Barnard (1725-1795). He also borrowed a horse for “a day to harrow,” and a “man and cattle to get hay.” Abijah’s account was credited by planting, cutting wood, cutting tobacco, and “chores.”
Dr. Thomas Williams provided both Abijah and Titus with medical supplies, potatoes, cash, and veterinary services. The two men paid their debts by “ferriage,” making mortar, reaping oats, picking apples, and cutting tobacco; and also with goods: yarn, flax, pigs, and a heifer calf.
Mescheck was enslaved first by Reverend Williams and he is listed in inventories in 1729, as a part of the minister’s estate. Mescheck was described as a “mulatto.” When Reverend Williams’ daughter Abigail married Col. Ebenezer Hinsdale in 1730, Mescheck became her property. Col. Hinsdale had a large mercantile business both in Hinsdale, New Hampshire, and in Deerfield. Mescheck conducted the business at one place while his enslaver was at the other. In 1752, Mescheck had an account at the store of Major Elijah Williams.
The accounts of these enslaved people show the same methods of payment – cash, goods, and services – and a similar time lapse from purchase to payment, as their white owners in 18th century Deerfield.
